Ko te nekenga tauira - ko ... Ko nga tauira whakamāramatanga. Thomas Kuhn, "Te Hanga o Scientific takaí"

I roto i te arotake i te tukanga whanaketanga i roto i te whānui, rite kua whakatakoto philosopho ona ture matua. I roto i tetahi o ratou kua takoto te e te ahunga whakamua o te rautaki. Kei te karanga a te reira i te ture o te whakakorehanga o whakakorehanga. I roto i runga ki tenei whanaketanga ko tōrino. I ia tahuri mau tukanga tāruarua, engari i ngā taumata teitei. takoto tetahi ture e te whanaketanga o tātai. ka karanga a Hegel tona whakawhitinga i te nui ki te kounga. I roto i runga i tenei ture, te whanaketanga ko te hua āta i roto i te maha o ngā rerekētanga e kore e e whai āhuatanga hou mārama. Otiia i muri i te taenga he tetahi uara ko te tupeke kounga. Kei te tuku i tēnei rohe ki Hegel mehua.

Ko te tukanga o te whanaketanga o te mahara pāpori, ngā i roto i te rangahau, me te ao ahurea, e wahi i roto i te haaputuputuraa o etahi huringa ine. Ki runga ki mehua pa whakatika ratou tupeke kounga - te revolution pūtaiao. Ko te kupu te nekenga tauira he āhuatanga matua o te tukanga whanaketanga. Fakakaukau ki atu pehea tupu te reira, a he aha ngā taea whakaatu e pā ana ki reira.

Tauira - he mea i roto i nga kupu ohie?

I ahu mai tēnei wāhanga te i Kariki. waihanga tauira o te raruraru me ona otinga ko te whāinga matua mo te wā motuhake - ko te tauira tenei. He aha te mea i roto i nga kupu ohie? Paradeigma te ahua motuhake ki te tikanga o te hanga, me te whakaoti rapanga rangahau. Ine i reira e kore te nuinga pea e kitea he māramatanga tika o te pūtaiao. He tauira ngā o tona mahi. Te huri paradigms te tino māmā faahoho'a te reira i te rite o te tetahi wā.

te pū o te

Ko te nekenga tauira - he tukanga roa nui. e kore e tangohia e ia te wahi hohoro a e tahi e te introduction āta o whakaaro hou i roto i te feruriraa o te maha tipu o pūtaiao. I muri i te ia, horahanga, riro te tauira hou te tirohanga täkupu. E hanga e te faaauraa maha mea i roto i te ora. Ko te kupu, kawea te hīraurau hopanga pāngarau i roto i te whakamahi i rongoā mōhiotia. Facts e pehi whakapumautia tauira ka kite a te tikanga rite titorehanga ranei ara waiho. Heoi, ka rite ki kitea e te hītori o te pūtaiao, te nekenga tauira - he āhuatanga tūturu.

wātaka

Ki runga ki pa he maha etahi o meka hou i reira ko te whakangaromanga tere o te tauira whakapumautia. I tona turanga i hanga te pūnaha hou te. whakamahi te reira te tahi atu ariā me ngā tikanga e te tikanga o nei te tikanga e tika o te mōhiohio penapena. Ko te huringa o paradigms pūtaiao maha faahoho'ahia e te kauwhata. Ko te tuaka whakapae tohu t wa, me te poutū - ngā uara waitara n me te p. tohu Tata te tohu o te whanaketanga o te ako me te taumata o te hangarau te ahunga whakamua i runga i te wā. tohua te whakamutunga e te tupu te rārangi iraira me te huringa i roto i te tuatahi - he raina mārō. wāhanga Whakapae e ōrite ana ki te tauira whakapumautia. I ngā wāhanga pari o te nekenga tauira e wahi. Tenei āhuatanga i roto i te tuhinga hou i te ti'araa hāngai. I ngā wāhanga pari noa tupu e te tupeke kounga, i whakahuatia i runga ake. Kei te karanga a te reira i te revolution pūtaiao, me te hangarau.

Ko te whanaketanga o te pūtaiao

Ko te tino rongonui tawhito puna tuhituhia o ngā mōhiohio ngā wawe China, Kariki me Ihipa. Ratou tau, ko te mea e toru mano nga tau. Fele Kei roto ratou mōhiohio i te mara o te rongoā, pāngarau, arorangi, he mahara ki nga taketake o te ora. mahi Scientific kawea i roto i nga wa onamata i roto i pūtaiao marara - mahara. Ahakoa kahore he tauira mārama o perception, hua i roto i te ngaro tata oti o ngā waenganui i mau philosopho. Pea te mea o tenei puta nga whakaaro matua o nga ariā matua whakamahia tenei ra.

Hei tauira, e mohio ana e kore e maha te iwi he aha i hanga ai te wehenga o te porowhita ki te 360 nekehanga. Na, ahu tenei tauira i roto i Ihipa i tahito ra. I whakapono te reira e te tau ngā 360 ra. I roto i tenei wa, whakaahua ana te ra i te porowhita. Fakatatau ki ai, kotahi ra rite ki te 1/360 pewa kaupapa Luminary. I muri, kua tenei uara i tono e nga Arapi, ka i te ingoa te "tohu". I roto i nga mahi o mau philosopho Kariki onamata taea te whakaaro he tetahi tauira faitatau. Ko kaumatua māramatanga tika o te tapatahi ao. Ko te kupu e kore e wehea ratou pūtaiao ki marau motuhake me mahi rite te kaupapa tūturu.

whakaaro tawhito

Ko te pūkenga onamata tino rongonui ngā Thales o Miretu, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Democritus, a, o te akoranga, Aristotle. Tuatahi, āhua, ko ia te tetahi tuatahi nana i korero te ao e pā ana ki te āhuatanga Electrification. kau nei Democritus ki te ariā o te hanganga ngota o matū. Archimedes whakatakotoria nga turanga o hydrostatics me rehe. I hangaia Ptolemy hanganga taiawhio o te ao, i hāngai e ia tona hanga arorangi.

Na, whakaaro he ahua matua i roto i te whanaketanga o te tauira pūtaiao e Aristotle. Ko ia te kaitohutohu o Macedon. e kore kua te rangatira nui wareware e pā ana ki tona kaiwhakaako. e kore Aristotle whiwhi anake i te momo o rawa taunaki, engari ano hoki tuhinga, i roto i te whakaaro nui riro u'i nui. Nā ki tenei tautoko i taea ki te hanga i te kura nui pūtaiao te kaipūtaiao. whakatakoto Aristotle nga taketake o arorau ōkawa, i hanga te kohinga pūnahanaha tuatahi o nga ariā katoa o tona wa. Ko reira ka tona kura he hapori e hanga e te tauira tawhito i roto i te pūtaiao. I muri whakaaro pūtaiao canonised Roma Katorika Ekalesia. Ana whakaaro noho i te matua mo te wa rawa te roa. He nekenga tauira i roto i te matauranga pūtaiao i te wa etaeta tāmia. takaro te tūranga motuhake e konei e te whakataki Tapu. whakapumautia tenei e te mau hi'oraa o Nikolaya Kopernika ko Galileo.

weightless ariā

Ko te nekenga tauira - ko, te tuatahi o te katoa, te whakangaromanga o whakaaro i mua-tīariari. Ki te whanaketanga o te hapori, he tokomaha o ngā whakaaro a Aristotle i kore hāngai, me te rawaka. Neke atu i te wa, ko te pūtake mo te whakamāramatanga o maha ari tūturu i runga i te whakaaro o te weightless, matū i ahuareka ai, mahi rite kawe o etahi huru maitatai tinana. Whakamārama ngā pānga whatu i runga i te timatanga o te ariā o wiri i roto i ethers weightless. ka tāutuhia Heat ki te wai kawekawe, i huaina caloric.

Autō me ari hiko kua kitea ano ratou whakamārama. I roto i ngā, e pā ana ratou oraraa e ki te aroaro o rua wai he rerekē utu wehenga, me kotahi autō. I muri mai, Franklin, peresideni o Amerika, mahue tetahi anake o ratou. whakaritea Ko tōna aroaro te ki te "+", me te kore o, aua, "-". I roto i te ao i teie mahana, kitea tenei tauira i roto i te wehenga o utu i runga i te kino me te pai. Theory weightless roa mutu ki te tīariari, engari noho te momotuhi o reira.

āhuatanga

Mā te whakamahi i te tauira tā te whakamahi o te huarahi hītori ki te tukanga o te matapaki i te ariā ngā. Hei wāhanga o te whanaketanga pāpori o te pono e pā ana te reira ki te oraraa o te tītohu tuakiri. Ka rite ki te take matua i huaina he nekenga tauira te muri. Te huri i ngā tauira whakaritea e te irava o te wā, me te, i runga i, te whanaketanga o te tirohanga o te hapori. faataa philosopho American, me te pūtaiao Thomas Kuhn pehea te ariā whakauru. Whāngai i te tauira ngā wā ngā te whānuitanga o ngā take, me ngā raruraru e whai tikanga me te otinga. nga ngā katoa me tītohunga kahore e e taka ki roto i te reira, e kore e fana'oi whakaaro. Tenei kōrero e i ia wāhanga o te whanaketanga o te hapori i reira te vai he ariā noa, e mahi i roto i te tauira whakapumautia.

"Hanganga o Scientific takaí"

Na huaina ana a reira te mana tino, rite ki pūtaiao o te rau tau rua tekau, he pukapuka e heheu te uho o te huringa i roto i te mahara o te hapori. Thomas Kuhn, ka titiro te kaituhi i te whanaketanga o te whakangaromanga e rua o te koroheke, me te putanga o te huru hinengaro hou ki te raruraru. Nā ki a ratou, i roto i tona whakaaro, a ka reira he ariā hou me whakapae. Ko te ariā o te nekenga tauira, i takea e te kaituhi kihai i hoatu e tali ki ngā pātai maha. Heoi, he mea he ara hou ki te whakaatu i te ngako o te pēhi take i roto i to ratou tātaritanga. Ko te hao mahi a Kuhn me kei whakaaro auaha. arahina tenei ki te rongonui o te pukapuka, me te putanga o te tautohe a tawhio reira.

Ihirangi ariā

Na roto i te tatararaa, te philosopho, revolution pūtaiao ko te huringa āhuatanga i roto i te tauira ngā. I raro i reira, riro te kaituhi whakatutukitanga mohio e pūtaiao katoa, me te hoatu i runga i te wā o te kaupapa o te whakatakoto raruraru me ngā rongoā hapori. Ko te nekenga tauira - he, kia rite ki te philosopho, Pākatokato tukanga rapunga e kore e taea te faataa e te tauira whakaaetia hurinoa. kia kitea te ariā o nāianei rite te kaupapa o nāianei, engari ano hoki i te ao rite te katoa, i roto i te mea reira hakari, me nga kitenga i takea mai i tona whakamahi e kore e tika.

Te tauira pakanga, e e wahi i roto i te tukanga o amuamu kounga, he matua i te taupatupatu o ngā pūnaha rerekē uara, ara o rongoā, inenga, ngā mahi mātakitaki, engari e kore e iti ki pikitia o te ao. Ko rerekē i te kaituhi o te ariā o neo-positivists te tauira e whakaarohia i roto i taua hāngai reira i runga i te kairangahau takitahi, engari e kore e ki te mahi oti'a anake taumauri arorau ranei.

whakamārama mahi

He tauira o te āhua o te whakaaro nga ope whakakapinga tauira te mōhiohio taua i roto i ara rerekē, mahi rite he tokonga whatu "rapeti-rakiraki". Maoro ranei i muri mai, i roto i te ako ki te whakaemi nui mōhiohio e pā ana ki kōhikohiko tino, i roto i te pakanga ki te ariā ngā. I tenei wāhi mai te raruraru pūtaiao. I roto i te akoranga o reira e kawea atu ki te whakamātau whakaaro hou, e tae noa taua wa kihai i tangohia ki te whakaaro kua paopao ranei. Ka rite ki te hua, oti te raruraru i roto i te tauira pūtaiao neke te. e te tauira hou i runga i tona kaitautoko. Mai taua taime ra, he ahua o kaitautoko pakanga hinengaro o te koroheke, me te mono ki tona tauira. Te whakanui ake i te maha o ngā kōwhiringa whakataetae, te hiahia me te hinaaro ki tamata te tahi mea hou, ki te matapaki i te mau parau tumu faufaa tohu te whakawhitinga o te tukanga ako noa ki faahiahia.

Ko te whakakapinga-hiko tirohanga relativistic Einstein Maxwell taea te mahi kia rite ki te tauira o te ahupūngao o te rau tau 20. haere tahi ana tēnei whakawhitinga e te raupapa o ngā tautohetohe wera ki te mau mai i te raraunga tëtehi. Ka rite ki te hua o tautohe i runga i te katoa mohio ariā o Einstein.

takahanga

I roto i te mahi, i reira e te tahi mau hi'oraa matarohia o te nekenga tauira. Na, ka mea te tokomaha o pūtaiao e taea te kite i te kitea o te whakakapinga parakore o tetahi tauira o te atu anake i runga i te wāhanga kaua waitara o tetahi huringa. Ki te ako tatou i te tukanga i roto i te taipitopito, he reira tino rawa uaua ki te whakatau i te kau o te peke. Hinga ki raro i te whakamāramatanga o Kuhn ngā whai:

1. Paheko ahupūngao puāwaitanga o Newton i ariā mechanistic hāngai ana.
2. Whanaketanga o ariā o te kukuwhatanga o Darwin. peia ia 'oku i te tirohanga o te whakamārama taketake o te momo o ngā ora i runga i te whenua.
3. Ko te whanaketanga o te ahupūngao aronui. whakaritea Pakia te takanga o rehe puāwaitanga.
4. Whakaae o te ariā o tuapapa rite te whakamārama mo te huringa nui-tauine i roto i te arowhenua o te ao.

ariā puāwaitanga

I te mutunga ia i hanga i roto i te tīmatanga o te rau tau 20. I tona turanga takoto iho te parau tumu o te causality. Kei te hāngai te reira i runga i te ariā e mārama me tino whakatika te tūhuratanga i te huru o ona generators. Kua whakapataritari he tikanga pērā o te hononga causal, i tahuri, i te whakaaro o te determinism oti o takahanga ka ū mai. Ko te ngako o te ariā whakahuatia i roto i te parau tumu o te determinism pūtaiao, tangohia Rāpāra. E ai ki a ia, e taea te precalculation e whakaoti te maha etahi o whārite o ahupūngao puāwaitanga ngā katoa. au ra mārama me te ngāwari mea katoa, a ka i faataa maha ari i roto i tenei tauira.

Heoi,, pūrere hiko i roto i te wahi tuatahi kua hanga te whakapai ake o te hangarau, te revolution pūtaiao, me te hangarau hou. puta tupeke kounga ngā tata. Literature whakaputaina i roto i te waenganui o te rau tau whakamutunga, tonu kei tohu e whakatupehupehu ana te tika o te akoranga hou. I roto i tenei take i te whakatupuranga o nāianei kite homai enei innovations.

mutunga

Te revolution hangarau, i whakatika rite ki te hua o te ariā hou o te Māoritanga, puta i roto i te tekau tau tuatahi o te rau tau 20. tohua te reira i te waihanga tuatahi o ariā aronui, i āta te oraraa o te determinism puāwaitanga. arahina hoki tenei revolution ki huringa faufaa i roto i te māramatanga o here matū. He tauira hou he tikanga taiea o te parau tumu o te causality. Ka rite ki te āhuatanga matua o te tauira ngā ko te aronga nunu'a teie mahana rangirua o nga huru ngā. hua Take etahi ngā kaupapa ki te tetahi tūponotanga.

Kei te mea te reira e te mahia he rota o te kaihanga o te revolution hou i roto i te pūtaiao, me te hangarau, ki te tauira tūturu-pūtaiao puāwaitanga o perception o te ao, ka mate, a kahore te taea ki te hoatu ki te kore o te whai wāhi hopea faataa e te whakatuwheratanga o te ariā e whakamahia ana i hanga i mua i a ratou ake.